# NASM - The Netwide Assembler

## version 3.02rc8

## Chapter 2: Running NASM

### 2.1. NASM Command-Line Syntax

To assemble a file, you issue a command of the form

    nasm -f <format> <filename> [-o <output>]

For example,

    nasm -f elf myfile.asm

will assemble `myfile.asm` into an 32-bit ELF object file `myfile.o`. And

    nasm -f bin myfile.asm -o myfile.com

will assemble `myfile.asm` into a raw binary file `myfile.com`.

To produce a listing file, with the hex codes output from NASM displayed on the left of the original sources, use the `-l` option to give a listing file name, for example:

    nasm -f coff myfile.asm -l myfile.lst

To get further usage instructions from NASM, try typing

    nasm -h

The option `--help` is an alias for the `-h` option.

Like Unix compilers and assemblers, NASM is silent unless it goes wrong: you won't see any output at all, unless it gives error messages.

#### 2.1.1. The `-o` Option: Output File Name

NASM will normally choose the name of your output file for you; precisely how it does this is dependent on the object file format. For Microsoft object file formats (`obj`, `win32` and `win64`), it will remove the `.asm` extension (or whatever extension you like to use – NASM doesn't care) from your source file name and substitute `.obj`. For Unix object file formats (`aout`, `as86`, `coff`, `elf32`, `elf64`, `elfx32`, `ieee`, `macho32` and `macho64`) it will substitute `.o`. For `dbg`, `ith` and `srec`, it will use `.dbg`, `.ith` and `.srec`, respectively, and for the `bin` format it will simply remove the extension, so that `myfile.asm` produces the output file `myfile`.

If the output file already exists, NASM will overwrite it, unless it has the same name as the input file, in which case it will give a warning and use `nasm.out` as the output file name instead.

For situations in which this behaviour is unacceptable, NASM provides the `-o` command-line option, which allows you to specify your desired output file name. You invoke `-o` by following it with the name you wish for the output file, either with or without an intervening space. For example:

    nasm -f bin program.asm -o program.com
    nasm -f bin driver.asm -odriver.sys

Note that this is a small o, and is different from a capital O , which is used to specify the number of optimization passes required. See section 2.1.24.

#### 2.1.2. The `-f` Option: Output File Format

If you do not supply the `-f` option to NASM, it will choose an output file format for you itself. In the distribution versions of NASM, the default is always `bin`; if you've compiled your own copy of NASM, you can redefine `OF_DEFAULT` at compile time and choose what you want the default to be.

Like `-o`, the intervening space between `-f` and the output file format is optional; so `-f elf` and `-felf` are both valid.

A complete list of the available output file formats can be given by issuing the command `nasm -h`.

#### 2.1.3. The `-l` Option: Generating a Listing File

If you supply the `-l` option to NASM, followed (with the usual optional space) by a file name, NASM will generate a source-listing file for you, in which addresses and generated code are listed on the left, and the actual source code, with expansions of multi-line macros (except those which specifically request no expansion in source listings: see section 5.5.11) on the right. For example:

    nasm -f elf myfile.asm -l myfile.lst

If a list file is selected, you may turn off listing for a section of your source with `[list -]`, and turn it back on with `[list +]`, (the default, obviously). There is no "user form" (without the brackets). This can be used to list only sections of interest, avoiding excessively long listings.

#### 2.1.4. The `-L` Option: Additional or Modified Listing Info

Use this option to specify listing output details.

Supported options are:

- `-Lb` show builtin macro packages (standard and `%use`)

- `-Ld` show byte and repeat counts in decimal, not hex

- `-Le` show the preprocessed input

- `-Lf` ignore `.nolist` and force listing output

- `-LF` ignore `[LIST]` directives (see section 8.15)

- `-Lm` show multi-line macro calls with expanded parameters

- `-Lp` output a list file in every pass, in case of errors

- `-Ls` show all single-line macro definitions

- `-Lw` flush the output after every line (very slow, mainly useful to debug NASM crashes)

- `-L+` enable all listing options except `-Lw` (very verbose)

These options can be enabled or disabled at runtime using the `%pragma list options` directive:

    %pragma list options [+|-]flags...

For example, to turn on the `d` and `m` flags but disable the `s` flag:

    %pragma list options +dm -s

For forward compatility reasons, an undefined flag will be ignored. Thus, a new flag introduced in a newer version of NASM can be specified without breaking older versions. Listing flags will always be a single alphanumeric character and are case sensitive.

#### 2.1.5. The `-M` Option: Generate Makefile Dependencies

This option can be used to generate makefile dependencies on stdout. This can be redirected to a file for further processing. For example:

    nasm -M myfile.asm > myfile.dep

#### 2.1.6. The `-MG` Option: Generate Makefile Dependencies

This option can be used to generate makefile dependencies on stdout. This differs from the `-M` option in that if a nonexisting file is encountered, it is assumed to be a generated file and is added to the dependency list without a prefix.

#### 2.1.7. The `-MF` Option: Set Makefile Dependency File

This option can be used with the `-M` or `-MG` options to send the output to a file, rather than to stdout. For example:

    nasm -M -MF myfile.dep myfile.asm

#### 2.1.8. The `-MD` Option: Assemble and Generate Dependencies

The `-MD` option acts as the combination of the `-M` and `-MF` options (i.e. a filename has to be specified.) However, unlike the `-M` or `-MG` options, `-MD` does not inhibit the normal operation of the assembler. Use this to automatically generate updated dependencies with every assembly session. For example:

    nasm -f elf -o myfile.o -MD myfile.dep myfile.asm

If the argument after `-MD` is an option rather than a filename, then the output filename is the first applicable one of:

- the filename set in the `-MF` option;

- the output filename from the `-o` option with `.d` appended;

- the input filename with the extension set to `.d`.

#### 2.1.9. The `-MT` Option: Dependency Target Name

The `-MT` option can be used to override the default name of the dependency target. This is normally the same as the output filename, specified by the `-o` option.

#### 2.1.10. The `-MQ` Option: Dependency Target Name (Quoted)

The `-MQ` option acts as the `-MT` option, except it tries to quote characters that have special meaning in Makefile syntax. This is not foolproof, as not all characters with special meaning are quotable in `make`. The default output (if no `-MT` or `-MQ` option is specified) is automatically quoted.

#### 2.1.11. The `-MP` Option: Emit Phony Makefile Targets

When used with any of the dependency generation options, the `-MP` option causes NASM to emit a phony target without dependencies for each header file. This prevents `make` from complaining if a header file has been removed.

#### 2.1.12. The `-MW` Option: Watcom `make` quoting style

This option causes NASM to attempt to quote dependencies according to Watcom `make` conventions rather than POSIX `make` conventions (also used by most other `make` variants.) This quotes `#` as `$#` rather than `\#`, uses `&` rather than `\` for continuation lines, and encloses filenames containing whitespace in double quotes.

#### 2.1.13. The `-F` Option: Debug Information Format

This option is used to select the format of the debug information emitted into the output file, to be used by a debugger (or will be). Prior to version 2.03.01, the use of this switch did not enable output of the selected debug info format. Use `-g`, see section 2.1.14, to enable output. Versions 2.03.01 and later automatically enable `-g` if `-F` is specified.

A complete list of the available debug file formats for an output format can be seen by issuing the command `nasm -h`. Not all output formats currently support debugging output.

This should not be confused with the `-f dbg` output format option, see section 9.14.

#### 2.1.14. The `-g` Option: Enabling Debug Information.

This option can be used to generate debugging information in the specified format. See section 2.1.13. Using `-g` without `-F` results in emitting debug info in the default format, if any, for the selected output format. If no debug information is currently implemented in the selected output format, `-g` is silently ignored.

#### 2.1.15. The `-X` Option: Selecting an Error Reporting Format

This option can be used to select an error reporting format for any error messages that might be produced by NASM.

Currently, two error reporting formats may be selected. They are the `-Xvc` option and the `-Xgnu` option. The GNU format is the default and looks like this:

    filename.asm:65: error: specific error message

where `filename.asm` is the name of the source file in which the error was detected, `65` is the source file line number on which the error was detected, `error` is the severity of the error (this could be `warning`), and `specific error message` is a more detailed text message which should help pinpoint the exact problem.

The other format, specified by `-Xvc` is the style used by Microsoft Visual C++ and some other programs. It looks like this:

    filename.asm(65) : error: specific error message

where the only difference is that the line number is in parentheses instead of being delimited by colons.

See also the `Visual C++` output format, section 9.6.

#### 2.1.16. The `-Z` Option: Send Errors to a File

Under MS-DOS it can be difficult (though there are ways) to redirect the standard-error output of a program to a file. Since NASM usually produces its warning and error messages on `stderr`, this can make it hard to capture the errors if (for example) you want to load them into an editor.

NASM therefore provides the `-Z` option, taking a filename argument which causes errors to be sent to the specified files rather than standard error. Therefore you can redirect the errors into a file by typing

    nasm -Z myfile.err -f obj myfile.asm

In earlier versions of NASM, this option was called `-E`, but it was changed since `-E` is an option conventionally used for preprocessing only, with disastrous results. See section 2.1.22.

#### 2.1.17. The `-s` Option: Send Errors to `stdout`

The `-s` option redirects error messages to `stdout` rather than `stderr`, so it can be redirected under MS-DOS. To assemble the file `myfile.asm` and pipe its output to the `more` program, you can type:

    nasm -s -f obj myfile.asm | more

See also the `-Z` option, section 2.1.16.

#### 2.1.18. The `-i` Option: Include File Search Directories

When NASM sees the `%include` or `%pathsearch` directive in a source file (see section 5.8.1, section 5.8.2 or section 3.2.3), it will search for the given file not only in the current directory, but also in any directories specified on the command line by the use of the `-i` option. Therefore you can include files from a macro library, for example, by typing

    nasm -ic:\macrolib\ -f obj myfile.asm

(As usual, a space between `-i` and the path name is allowed, and optional).

Prior NASM 2.14 a path provided in the option has been considered as a verbatim copy and providing a path separator been up to a caller. One could implicitly concatenate a search path together with a filename. Still this was rather a trick than something useful. Now the trailing path separator is made to always present, thus `-ifoo` will be considered as the `-ifoo/` directory.

If you want to define a standard include search path, similar to `/usr/include` on Unix systems, you should place one or more `-i` directives in the `NASMENV` environment variable (see section 2.1.36).

For Makefile compatibility with many C compilers, this option can also be specified as `-I`.

#### 2.1.19. The `-p` Option: Pre-Include a File

NASM allows you to specify files to be pre-included into your source file, by the use of the `-p` option. So running

    nasm myfile.asm -p myinc.inc

is equivalent to running `nasm myfile.asm` and placing the directive `%include "myinc.inc"` at the start of the file.

`--include` option is also accepted.

For consistency with the `-I`, `-D` and `-U` options, this option can also be specified as `-P`.

#### 2.1.20. The `-d` Option: Pre-Define a Macro

Just as the `-p` option gives an alternative to placing `%include` directives at the start of a source file, the `-d` option gives an alternative to placing a `%define` directive. You could code

    nasm myfile.asm -dFOO=100

as an alternative to placing the directive

    %define FOO 100

at the start of the file. You can miss off the macro value, as well: the option `-dFOO` is equivalent to coding `%define FOO`. This form of the directive may be useful for selecting assembly-time options which are then tested using `%ifdef`, for example `-dDEBUG`.

For Makefile compatibility with many C compilers, this option can also be specified as `-D`.

#### 2.1.21. The `-u` Option: Undefine a Macro

The `-u` option undefines a macro that would otherwise have been pre-defined, either automatically or by a `-p` or `-d` option specified earlier on the command lines.

For example, the following command line:

    nasm myfile.asm -dFOO=100 -uFOO

would result in `FOO` not being a predefined macro in the program. This is useful to override options specified at a different point in a Makefile.

For Makefile compatibility with many C compilers, this option can also be specified as `-U`.

#### 2.1.22. The `-E` Option: Preprocess Only

NASM allows the preprocessor to be run on its own, up to a point. Using the `-E` option (which requires no arguments) will cause NASM to preprocess its input file, expand all the macro references, remove all the comments and preprocessor directives, and print the resulting file on standard output (or save it to a file, if the `-o` option is also used).

This option cannot be applied to programs which require the preprocessor to evaluate expressions which depend on the values of symbols: so code such as

    %assign tablesize ($-tablestart)

will cause an error in preprocess-only mode.

For compatibility with older version of NASM, this option can also be written `-e`. `-E` in older versions of NASM was the equivalent of the current `-Z` option, section 2.1.16.

#### 2.1.23. The `-a` Option: Suppress Preprocessing

If NASM is being used as the back end to a compiler, it might be desirable to suppress preprocessing completely and assume the compiler has already done it, to save time and increase compilation speeds. The `-a` option, requiring no argument, instructs NASM to replace its powerful preprocessor with a stub preprocessor which does nothing.

#### 2.1.24. The `-O` Option: Multipass Optimization

Using the `-O` option, you can tell NASM to carry out different levels of optimization. Multiple flags can be specified after the `-O` options, some of which can be combined in a single option, e.g. `-Oxv`.

- `-O0`: No optimization. All operands take their long forms, if a short form is not specified, except conditional jumps. This is intended to match NASM 0.98 behavior.

- `-O1`: Minimal optimization. As above, but immediate operands which will fit in a signed byte are optimized, unless the long form is specified. Conditional jumps default to the long form unless otherwise specified.

- `-Ox` (where `x` is the actual letter `x`): Multipass optimization. Minimize branch offsets and signed immediate bytes, overriding size specification unless the `strict` keyword has been used (see section 3.7). For compatibility with earlier releases, the letter `x` may also be any number greater than one. This number has no effect on the actual number of passes.

- `-Ov`: At the end of assembly, print the number of passes actually executed.

The `-Ox` mode is recommended for most uses, and is the default since NASM 2.09. Any other mode will generate worse quality output. Use `-O0` or `-O1` only if you need the finer programmer-level control of output and `strict` is not suitable for your use case.

Note that this is a capital `O`, and is different from a small `o`, which is used to specify the output file name. See section 2.1.1.

#### 2.1.25. The `-t` Option: TASM Compatibility Mode

NASM includes a limited form of compatibility with Borland's TASM. When NASM's `-t` option is used, the following changes are made:

- local labels may be prefixed with `@@` instead of `.`

- size override is supported within brackets. In TASM compatible mode, a size override inside square brackets changes the size of the operand, and not the address type of the operand as it does in NASM syntax. E.g. `mov eax,[DWORD val]` is valid syntax in TASM compatibility mode. Note that you lose the ability to override the default address type for the instruction.

- unprefixed forms of some directives supported (`arg`, `elif`, `else`, `endif`, `if`, `ifdef`, `ifdifi`, `ifndef`, `include`, `local`)

#### 2.1.26. The `-w` and `-W` Options: Enable or Disable Assembly Warnings

NASM can observe many conditions during the course of assembly which are worth mentioning to the user, but not a sufficiently severe error to justify NASM refusing to generate an output file. These conditions are reported like errors, but come up with the word `warning' before the message. Warnings do not prevent NASM from generating an output file and returning a success status to the operating system.

Some conditions are even less severe than that: they are only sometimes worth mentioning to the user. Therefore NASM supports the `-w` command-line option, which enables or disables certain classes of assembly warning. Such warning classes are described by a name, for example `label-orphan`; you can enable warnings of this class by the command-line option `-w+label-orphan` and disable it by `-w-label-orphan`.

Since version 2.15, NASM has group aliases for all prefixed warnings, so they can be used to enable or disable all warnings in the group. For example, –w+float enables all warnings with names starting with float-*.

Since version 2.00, NASM has also supported the `gcc`–like syntax `-Wwarning-class` and `-Wno-warning-class` instead of `-w+warning-class` and `-w-warning-class`, respectively; both syntaxes work identically.

The option `-w+error` or `-Werror` can be used to treat warnings as errors. This can be controlled on a per warning class basis (`-w+error=`warning-class or `-Werror=`warning-class); if no warning-class is specified NASM treats it as `-w+error=all`; the same applies to `-w-error` or `-Wno-error`, of course.

In addition, you can control warnings in the source code itself, using the `[WARNING]` directive. See section 8.14.

See appendix A for the complete list of warning classes.

#### 2.1.27. The `-v` Option: Display Version Info

Typing `NASM -v` will display the version of NASM which you are using, and the date on which it was compiled.

You will need the version number if you report a bug.

For command-line compatibility with Yasm, the form `--v` is also accepted for this option starting in NASM version 2.11.05.

#### 2.1.28. The `--[gl]prefix` and `--[gl]postfix` Options

The `--gprefix` option prepends the given argument to all `extern`, `common`, `static`, and `global` symbols, and the `--lprefix` option prepends to all other symbols. Similarly, `--gpostfix` and `--lpostfix` options append the argument, in a manner similar to the `--[gl]prefix` options.

Running this:

    nasm -f macho --gprefix _

is equivalent to placing the directive `%pragma macho gprefix _` at the start of the file (section 8.10). It will prepend the underscore to all global and external variables, as C requires it in some, but not all, system calling conventions.

`--prefix` is an alias for `--gprefix`.

See section 8.10 for the equivalent directives and pragmas.

Earlier versions of NASM called the pragmas `suffix` and the options `--postfix`, and did not implement directives at all despite being so documented. Since NASM 3.01, the directive forms are implemented, and directives, pragmas and options all support all spellings.

#### 2.1.29. The `--pragma` Option

NASM accepts an argument as `%pragma` option, which is like placing a `%pragma` preprocess statement at the beginning of the source. Running this:

    nasm -f macho --pragma "macho gprefix _"

is equivalent to the example in section 2.1.28. See section 5.12.

#### 2.1.30. The `--before` Option

Insert a statement (usually, but not necessarily) a preprocess statement before the input file. The example shown in section 2.1.29 is the same as running this:

    nasm -f macho --before "%pragma macho gprefix _"

#### 2.1.31. The `--bits` Option

Set the processor mode by inserting a `BITS` directive (kee section 8.1) before the input file. The following two statements are exactly equivalent:

    nasm -f bin --bits 16 file.asm
    nasm -f bin --before "BITS 16" file.asm

The `--bits` option was introduced in NASM 3.01; the `--before` form can be used for compatibility with older versions of NASM.

#### 2.1.32. The `--limit-` Options

These options allows user to setup various maximum values after which NASM will terminate with a fatal error rather than consume arbitrary amount of compute time. Each limit can be set to a positive number, `unlimited`, `maximum`, or `default`.

- `--limit-passes`: Number of maximum allowed passes. Default is `unlimited`.

- `--limit-stalled-passes`: Maximum number of allowed unfinished passes. Default is 1000.

- `--limit-macro-levels`: Define maximum depth of macro expansion (in preprocess). Default is 10000

- `--limit-macro-tokens`: Maximum number of tokens processed during single-line macro expansion. Default is 10000000.

- `--limit-mmacros`: Maximum number of multi-line macros processed before returning to the top-level input. Default is 100000.

- `--limit-rep`: Maximum number of allowed preprocessor loop, defined under `%rep`. Default is 1000000.

- `--limit-eval`: This number sets the maximum allowed expression length. Default is 8192 on most systems.

- `--limit-lines`: Total number of source lines allowed to be processed. Default is 2000000000.

- `--limit-params`: Maximum number of multi-line macro parameters. Default is 16383.

For example, set the maximum line count to 1000:

    nasm --limit-lines 1000

Limits can also be set via the directive `%pragma limit`, for example:

    %pragma limit lines 1000

Specifying the limit value as `*` or `reset` resets the limit to the value specified on the command line or the default value, undoing any previous `%pragma limit`.

See also the `%limit()` preprocessor function (section 5.4.13) and the `__?NASM_LIMITS?__` standard macro (section 6.8).

#### 2.1.33. The `--keep-all` Option

This option prevents NASM from deleting any output files even if an error happens.

#### 2.1.34. The `--no-line` Option

If this option is given, all `%line` directives in the source code are ignored. This can be useful for debugging already preprocessed code. See section 5.13.1.

#### 2.1.35. The `--reproducible` Option

If this option is given, NASM will not emit information that is inherently dependent on the NASM version or different from run to run (such as timestamps) into the output file.

#### 2.1.36. The `NASMENV` Environment Variable

If you define an environment variable called `NASMENV`, the program will interpret it as a list of extra command-line options, which are processed before the real command line. You can use this to define standard search directories for include files, by putting `-i` options in the `NASMENV` variable.

The value of the variable is split up at white space, so that the value `-s -ic:\nasmlib\` will be treated as two separate options. However, that means that the value `-dNAME="my name"` won't do what you might want, because it will be split at the space and the NASM command-line processing will get confused by the two nonsensical words `-dNAME="my` and `name"`.

To get round this, NASM provides a feature whereby, if you begin the `NASMENV` environment variable with some character that isn't a minus sign, then NASM will treat this character as the separator character for options. So setting the `NASMENV` variable to the value `!-s!-ic:\nasmlib\` is equivalent to setting it to `-s -ic:\nasmlib\`, but `!-dNAME="my name"` will work.

This environment variable was previously called `NASM`. This was changed with version 0.98.31.

### 2.2. Quick Start for MASM Users

If you're used to writing programs with MASM, or with TASM in MASM-compatible (non-Ideal) mode, or with `a86`, this section attempts to outline the major differences between MASM's syntax and NASM's. If you're not already used to MASM, it's probably worth skipping this section.

#### 2.2.1. NASM Is Case-Sensitive

One simple difference is that NASM is case-sensitive. It makes a difference whether you call your label `foo`, `Foo` or `FOO`. If you're assembling to `DOS` or `OS/2` `.OBJ` files, you can invoke the `UPPERCASE` directive (documented in section 9.4) to ensure that all symbols exported to other code modules are forced to be upper case; but even then, within a single module, NASM will distinguish between labels differing only in case.

#### 2.2.2. NASM Requires Square Brackets For Memory References

NASM was designed with simplicity of syntax in mind. One of the design goals of NASM is that it should be possible, as far as is practical, for the user to look at a single line of NASM code and tell what opcode is generated by it. You can't do this in MASM: if you declare, for example,

    foo     equ     1
    bar     dw      2

then the two lines of code

            mov     ax,foo
            mov     ax,bar

generate completely different opcodes, despite having identical-looking syntaxes.

NASM avoids this undesirable situation by having a much simpler syntax for memory references. The rule is simply that any access to the contents of a memory location requires square brackets around the address, and any access to the address of a variable doesn't. So an instruction of the form `mov ax,foo` will always refer to a compile-time constant, whether it's an `EQU` or the address of a variable; and to access the contents of the variable `bar`, you must code `mov ax,[bar]`.

This also means that NASM has no need for MASM's `OFFSET` keyword, since the MASM code `mov ax,offset bar` means exactly the same thing as NASM's `mov ax,bar`. If you're trying to get large amounts of MASM code to assemble sensibly under NASM, you can always code `%idefine offset` to make the preprocessor treat the `OFFSET` keyword as a no-op.

This issue is even more confusing in `a86`, where declaring a label with a trailing colon defines it to be a `label' as opposed to a `variable' and causes `a86` to adopt NASM-style semantics; so in `a86`, `mov ax,var` has different behaviour depending on whether `var` was declared as `var: dw 0` (a label) or `var dw 0` (a word-size variable). NASM is very simple by comparison: everything is a label.

NASM, in the interests of simplicity, also does not support the hybrid syntaxes supported by MASM and its clones, such as `mov ax,table[bx]`, where a memory reference is denoted by one portion outside square brackets and another portion inside. The correct syntax for the above is `mov ax,[table+bx]`. Likewise, `mov ax,es:[di]` is wrong and `mov ax,[es:di]` is right.

#### 2.2.3. NASM Doesn't Store Variable Types

NASM, by design, chooses not to remember the types of variables you declare. Whereas MASM will remember, on seeing `var dw 0`, that you declared `var` as a word-size variable, and will then be able to fill in the ambiguity in the size of the instruction `mov var,2`, NASM will deliberately remember nothing about the symbol `var` except where it begins, and so you must explicitly code `mov word [var],2`.

For this reason, NASM doesn't support the `LODS`, `MOVS`, `STOS`, `SCAS`, `CMPS`, `INS`, or `OUTS` instructions, but only supports the forms such as `LODSB`, `MOVSW`, and `SCASD`, which explicitly specify the size of the components of the strings being manipulated.

#### 2.2.4. NASM Doesn't `ASSUME`

As part of NASM's drive for simplicity, it also does not support the `ASSUME` directive. NASM will not keep track of what values you choose to put in your segment registers, and will never automatically generate a segment override prefix.

#### 2.2.5. NASM Doesn't Support Memory Models

NASM also does not have any directives to support different 16-bit memory models. The programmer has to keep track of which functions are supposed to be called with a far call and which with a near call, and is responsible for putting the correct form of `RET` instruction (`RETN` or `RETF`; NASM accepts `RET` itself as an alternate form for `RETN`); in addition, the programmer is responsible for coding CALL FAR instructions where necessary when calling external functions, and must also keep track of which external variable definitions are far and which are near.

#### 2.2.6. Floating-Point Differences

NASM uses different names to refer to floating-point registers from MASM: where MASM would call them `ST(0)`, `ST(1)` and so on, and `a86` would call them simply `0`, `1` and so on, NASM chooses to call them `st0`, `st1` etc.

#### 2.2.7. Other Differences

For historical reasons, NASM uses the keyword `TWORD` where MASM and compatible assemblers use `TBYTE`.

Historically, NASM does not declare uninitialized storage in the same way as MASM: where a MASM programmer might use `stack db 64 dup (?)`, NASM requires `stack resb 64`, intended to be read as `reserve 64 bytes'. As of NASM 2.15, the MASM syntax is also supported.

In addition to all of this, macros and directives work completely differently to MASM. See chapter 5 and chapter 8 for further details.

#### 2.2.8. MASM compatibility package

The MASM compatibility macro package can be used to improve MASM compatibility. See section 7.5.