// Copyright (c) 2025 GeometryFactory (France).
// All rights reserved.
//
// This file is part of CGAL (www.cgal.org).
//
// $URL: https://github.com/CGAL/cgal/blob/v6.2-beta1/Surface_mesh_decomposition/include/CGAL/approximate_convex_decomposition.h $
// $Id: include/CGAL/approximate_convex_decomposition.h 431cfb5357d $
// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0-or-later OR LicenseRef-Commercial
//
// Author(s)     : Sven Oesau
//

#ifndef CGAL_SURFACE_MESH_DECOMPOSITION_APPROXIMATE_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_H
#define CGAL_SURFACE_MESH_DECOMPOSITION_APPROXIMATE_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_H

#include <CGAL/license/Surface_mesh_decomposition.h>

#include <unordered_set>
#include <queue>

#include <CGAL/Named_function_parameters.h>
#include <CGAL/boost/graph/named_params_helper.h>

#include <CGAL/convex_hull_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Polygon_mesh_processing/bbox.h>
#include <CGAL/Polygon_mesh_processing/triangle.h>
#include <CGAL/Polygon_mesh_processing/shape_predicates.h>
#include <CGAL/Polygon_mesh_processing/measure.h>
#include <CGAL/utils_classes.h>

#include <CGAL/AABB_tree.h>
#include <CGAL/AABB_traits_3.h>
#include <CGAL/AABB_face_graph_triangle_primitive.h>

#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
#include <atomic>
#include <tbb/parallel_for_each.h>
#include <tbb/concurrent_unordered_map.h>
#else
#include <unordered_map>
#endif

namespace CGAL {
namespace internal {

using Vec3_uint = std::array<unsigned int, 3>;

struct Bbox_uint {
  Vec3_uint lower;
  Vec3_uint upper;
  Bbox_uint(const Vec3_uint &lower, const Vec3_uint &upper) : lower(lower), upper(upper) {}
};

enum Grid_cell : int8_t {
  OUTSIDE = -1,
  SURFACE = 0,
  INSIDE = 1
};

inline
void export_grid(const std::string& filename, const Bbox_3& bb, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, double voxel_size) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };
  std::ofstream stream(filename);

  stream <<
    "ply\n" <<
    "format ascii 1.0\n" <<
    "element vertex " << (grid_size[0] * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2]) << "\n" <<
    "property double x\n" <<
    "property double y\n" <<
    "property double z\n" <<
    "property uchar red\n" <<
    "property uchar green\n" <<
    "property uchar blue\n" <<
    "end_header\n";

  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " ";
        switch (vox(x, y, z)) {
        case INSIDE:
          stream << "175 175 100\n";
          break;
        case OUTSIDE:
          stream << "125 125 175\n";
          break;
        case SURFACE:
          stream << "200 100 100\n";
          break;
        default:
          stream << "0 0 0\n";
          break;
        }
      }

  stream.close();
}

template<typename Filter>
void export_grid(const std::string& filename, const Bbox_3& bb, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, double voxel_size, Filter& filter) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };
  std::ofstream stream(filename);

  std::size_t count = 0;
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++)
        if (filter(vox(x, y, z))) count++;

  stream <<
    "ply\n" <<
    "format ascii 1.0\n" <<
    "element vertex " << count << "\n" <<
    "property double x\n" <<
    "property double y\n" <<
    "property double z\n" <<
    "property uchar red\n" <<
    "property uchar green\n" <<
    "property uchar blue\n" <<
    "end_header\n";

  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
        if (!filter(vox(x, y, z))) continue;
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " ";
        switch (vox(x, y, z)) {
        case INSIDE:
          stream << "175 175 100\n";
          break;
        case OUTSIDE:
          stream << "125 125 175\n";
          break;
        case SURFACE:
          stream << "200 100 100\n";
          break;
        default:
          stream << "0 0 0\n";
          break;
        }
      }

  stream.close();
}

template<typename Filter>
void export_grid_voxels(const std::string& filename, const Bbox_3& bb, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, double voxel_size, Filter& filter) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };
  std::ofstream stream(filename);

  std::size_t count = 0;
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++)
        if (filter(vox(x, y, z))) count++;

  stream <<
    "ply\n" <<
    "format ascii 1.0\n" <<
    "element vertex " << count * 8 << "\n" <<
    "property double x\n" <<
    "property double y\n" <<
    "property double z\n" <<
    "element face " << count * 6 << "\n" <<
    "property list uchar int vertex_indices\n" <<
    "end_header\n";

  // export vertices
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
        if (!filter(vox(x, y, z))) continue;
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 1.0)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 1.0)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x)*voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 1.0)*voxel_size) << "\n";
        stream << (bb.xmin() + (x + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (y + 1.0) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (z + 1.0)*voxel_size) << "\n";
      }

  // export faces
  count = 0;
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
        if (!filter(vox(x, y, z))) continue;
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 0) << " " << (count * 8 + 1) << " " << (count * 8 + 3) << " " << (count * 8 + 2) << "\n";
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 4) << " " << (count * 8 + 5) << " " << (count * 8 + 7) << " " << (count * 8 + 6) << "\n";
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 0) << " " << (count * 8 + 1) << " " << (count * 8 + 5) << " " << (count * 8 + 4) << "\n";
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 2) << " " << (count * 8 + 3) << " " << (count * 8 + 7) << " " << (count * 8 + 6) << "\n";
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 0) << " " << (count * 8 + 2) << " " << (count * 8 + 6) << " " << (count * 8 + 4) << "\n";
        stream << "4 " << (count * 8 + 1) << " " << (count * 8 + 3) << " " << (count * 8 + 7) << " " << (count * 8 + 5) << "\n";

        count++;
      }

  stream.close();
}

inline
void export_voxels(const std::string& filename, const Bbox_3& bb, std::vector<Vec3_uint>& voxels, double voxel_size) {
  std::ofstream stream(filename);

  stream <<
    "ply\n" <<
    "format ascii 1.0\n" <<
    "element vertex " << voxels.size() << "\n" <<
    "property double x\n" <<
    "property double y\n" <<
    "property double z\n" <<
    "end_header\n";

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : voxels) {
    stream << (bb.xmin() + (v[0] + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.ymin() + (v[1] + 0.5) * voxel_size) << " " << (bb.zmin() + (v[2] + 0.5) * voxel_size) << "\n";
  }

  stream.close();
}

template<typename Point_3>
void export_points(const std::string& filename, const Bbox_3& bb, std::vector<Point_3>& points) {
  std::ofstream stream(filename);

  stream <<
    "ply\n" <<
    "format ascii 1.0\n" <<
    "element vertex " << points.size() << "\n" <<
    "property double x\n" <<
    "property double y\n" <<
    "property double z\n" <<
    "end_header\n";

  for (const Point_3& p : points) {
    stream << (bb.xmin() + p.x()) << " " << (bb.ymin() + p.y()) << " " << (bb.zmin() + p.z()) << "\n";
  }

  stream.close();
}

template<typename Range>
void export_points(const std::string& filename, Range& points) {
  std::ofstream stream(filename);
  stream << std::setprecision(18);

  for (const auto& p : points) {
    stream << p.x() << " " << p.y() << " " << p.z() << "\n";
  }

  stream.close();
}

template<typename Box>
Box box_union(const Box& a, const Box& b) {
  using FT = decltype(a.xmin());
  return Box(
    (std::min<FT>)(a.xmin(), b.xmin()),
    (std::min<FT>)(a.ymin(), b.ymin()),
    (std::min<FT>)(a.zmin(), b.zmin()),
    (std::max<FT>)(a.xmax(), b.xmax()),
    (std::max<FT>)(a.ymax(), b.ymax()),
    (std::max<FT>)(a.zmax(), b.zmax()));
}

template<typename FT>
std::tuple<Vec3_uint, FT> calculate_grid_size(Bbox_3& bb, const unsigned int number_of_voxels) {
  std::size_t max_voxels_axis = std::cbrt(number_of_voxels);
  assert(max_voxels_axis > 3);
  // get longest axis
  FT longest = 0;

  if (bb.x_span() >= bb.y_span() && bb.x_span() >= bb.z_span())
    longest = bb.x_span();
  else if (bb.y_span() >= bb.x_span() && bb.y_span() >= bb.z_span())
    longest = bb.y_span();
  else if (bb.z_span() >= bb.x_span() && bb.z_span() >= bb.y_span())
    longest = bb.z_span();

  const FT voxel_size = longest * FT(1.0 / (max_voxels_axis - 3));

  FT s = 1.5 * voxel_size;

  bb = Bbox_3(to_double(bb.xmin() - s), to_double(bb.ymin() - s), to_double(bb.zmin() - s), to_double(bb.xmax() + s), to_double(bb.ymax() + s), to_double(bb.zmax() + s));

  return { Vec3_uint{static_cast<unsigned int>(to_double(bb.x_span() / voxel_size + 0.5)), static_cast<unsigned int>(to_double(bb.y_span() / voxel_size + 0.5)), static_cast<unsigned int>(to_double(bb.z_span() / voxel_size + 0.5))}, voxel_size};
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename PolygonMesh, typename NamedParameters = parameters::Default_named_parameters>
const typename GeomTraits::Point_3 &point(typename boost::graph_traits<PolygonMesh>::face_descriptor fd,
  const PolygonMesh& pmesh,
  const NamedParameters& np = parameters::default_values())
{
  using parameters::choose_parameter;
  using parameters::get_parameter;
  typename GetVertexPointMap<PolygonMesh, NamedParameters>::const_type
    vpm = choose_parameter(get_parameter(np, internal_np::vertex_point),
      get_const_property_map(CGAL::vertex_point, pmesh));

  return get(vpm, target(halfedge(fd, pmesh), pmesh));
}

template<typename FaceGraph, typename FT>
Bbox_uint grid_bbox_face(const FaceGraph& mesh, const typename boost::graph_traits<FaceGraph>::face_descriptor fd, const Bbox_3& bb, const FT& voxel_size) {
  Bbox_3 face_bb = Polygon_mesh_processing::face_bbox(fd, mesh);
  double vs = to_double(voxel_size);
  return Bbox_uint({
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.xmin() - bb.xmin()) / vs - 0.5),
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.ymin() - bb.ymin()) / vs - 0.5),
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.zmin() - bb.zmin()) / vs - 0.5)
    }, {
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.xmax() - bb.xmin()) / vs + 0.5),
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.ymax() - bb.ymin()) / vs + 0.5),
    static_cast<unsigned int>((face_bb.zmax() - bb.zmin()) / vs + 0.5)
    });
}

template<typename GeomTraits>
typename GeomTraits::Iso_cuboid_3 bbox_voxel(const Vec3_uint& voxel, const Bbox_3& bb, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size) {
  double vs = to_double(voxel_size);
  return Bbox_3(
    bb.xmin() + voxel[0] * vs,
    bb.ymin() + voxel[1] * vs,
    bb.zmin() + voxel[2] * vs,
    bb.xmin() + (voxel[0] + 1) * vs,
    bb.ymin() + (voxel[1] + 1) * vs,
    bb.zmin() + (voxel[2] + 1) * vs
    );
}


template<typename GeomTraits>
typename GeomTraits::Iso_cuboid_3 bbox_voxel_bbox(const Bbox_uint& voxelbb, const Bbox_3& bb, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size) {
  double vs = to_double(voxel_size);
  return Bbox_3(
    bb.xmin() + voxelbb.lower[0] * vs,
    bb.ymin() + voxelbb.lower[1] * vs,
    bb.zmin() + voxelbb.lower[2] * vs,
    bb.xmin() + (voxelbb.upper[0] + 1) * vs,
    bb.ymin() + (voxelbb.upper[1] + 1) * vs,
    bb.zmin() + (voxelbb.upper[2] + 1) * vs
  );
}

inline
void scanline_floodfill(Grid_cell label, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, std::deque<Vec3_uint>& todo) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };

  while (!todo.empty()) {
    auto [x, y, z0] = todo.front();
    todo.pop_front();
    if (vox(x, y, z0) != INSIDE)
      return;

    bool xneg = false, xpos = false;
    bool yneg = false, ypos = false;
    bool zneg = false, zpos = false;

    // positive direction
    for (unsigned int z = z0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
      if (vox(x, y, z) != INSIDE)
        break;

      vox(x, y, z) = label;
      if (x > 0) {
        if (vox(x - 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!xneg) {
            xneg = true;
            todo.push_back({ x - 1, y, z });
          }
        }
        else xneg = false;
      }

      if (x < grid_size[0] - 1) {
        if (vox(x + 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!xpos) {
            xpos = true;
            todo.push_back({ x + 1, y, z });
          }
        }
        else xpos = false;
      }

      if (y > 0) {
        if (vox(x, y - 1, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!yneg) {
            yneg = true;
            todo.push_front({ x, y - 1, z });
          }
        }
        else yneg = false;
      }

      if (y < grid_size[1] - 1) {
        if (vox(x, y + 1, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!ypos) {
            ypos = true;
            todo.push_front({ x, y + 1, z });
          }
        }
        else ypos = false;
      }
    }

    xneg = xpos = yneg = ypos = zneg = zpos = false;

    if (z0 == 0)
      continue;

    for (unsigned int z = z0 - 1; z > 0; z--) {
      if (vox(x, y, z) != INSIDE)
        break;

      vox(x, y, z) = label;
      if (x > 0) {
        if (vox(x - 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!xneg) {
            xneg = true;
            todo.push_back({ x - 1, y, z });
          }
        }
        else xneg = false;
      }

      if (x < grid_size[0] - 1) {
        if (vox(x + 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!xpos) {
            xpos = true;
            todo.push_back({ x + 1, y, z });
          }
        }
        else xpos = false;
      }

      if (y > 0) {
        if (vox(x, y - 1, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!yneg) {
            yneg = true;
            todo.push_front({ x, y - 1, z });
          }
        }
        else yneg = false;
      }

      if (y < grid_size[1] - 1) {
        if (vox(x, y + 1, z) == INSIDE) {
          if (!ypos) {
            ypos = true;
            todo.push_front({ x, y + 1, z });
          }
        }
        else ypos = false;
      }
    }
  }
}

// Valid voxel grids separate OUTSIDE from INSIDE via SURFACE
inline
bool is_valid(std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };

  std::size_t in = 0, out = 0, surface = 0, other = 0, violations = 0;

  for (unsigned int x = 1; x < grid_size[0] - 1; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 1; y < grid_size[1] - 1; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 1; z < grid_size[2] - 1; z++) {
        switch (vox(x, y, z)) {
        case INSIDE:
          if ( vox(x - 1, y, z) == OUTSIDE
            || vox(x + 1, y, z) == OUTSIDE
            || vox(x, y - 1, z) == OUTSIDE
            || vox(x, y + 1, z) == OUTSIDE
            || vox(x, y, z - 1) == OUTSIDE
            || vox(x, y, z + 1) == OUTSIDE) {
            std::cout << "touching I-O: " << x << " " << y << " " << z << std::endl;
            violations++;
          }
          in++;
          break;
        case OUTSIDE:
          if (vox(x - 1, y, z) == INSIDE
            || vox(x + 1, y, z) == INSIDE
            || vox(x, y - 1, z) == INSIDE
            || vox(x, y + 1, z) == INSIDE
            || vox(x, y, z - 1) == INSIDE
            || vox(x, y, z + 1) == INSIDE) {
            std::cout << "touching O-I: " << x << " " << y << " " << z << std::endl;
            violations++;
          }
          out++;
          break;
        case SURFACE:
          surface++;
          break;
        default:
          std::cout << "other " << x << " " << y << " " << z << std::endl;
          other++;
          break;
        }
      }
  std::cout << "i: " << in << " o: " << out << " s: " << surface << " " << other << std::endl;
  std::cout << "violations: " << violations << std::endl;

  return violations == 0;
}

// Only works for closed meshes
inline
void label_floodfill(std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size) {
  // Walk around boundary and start floodfill when voxel label is INSIDE
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };

  std::deque<Vec3_uint> todo;

  // xmin/xmax
  for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
    for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
      if (vox(0, y, z) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({0, y, z});
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }

      if (vox(grid_size[0] - 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({ grid_size[0] - 1, y, z });
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }
    }

  // ymin/ymax
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
      if (vox(x, 0, z) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({ x, 0, z });
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }

      if (vox(x, grid_size[1] - 1, z) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({ x, grid_size[1] - 1, z });
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }
    }

  // ymin/ymax
  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++) {
      if (vox(x, y, 0) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({ x, y, 0 });
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }

      if (vox(x, y, grid_size[2] - 1) == INSIDE) {
        todo.push_front({ x, y, grid_size[2] - 1 });
        scanline_floodfill(OUTSIDE, grid, grid_size, todo);
      }
    }
}

inline
void naive_floodfill(std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };

  std::queue<Vec3_uint> queue;
  queue.push({0, 0, 0});

  while (!queue.empty()) {
    auto [x, y, z] = queue.front();
    queue.pop();

    if (vox(x, y, z) != INSIDE)
      continue;

    vox(x, y, z) = OUTSIDE;
    if (x > 0)
      if (vox(x - 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
          queue.push({ x - 1, y, z });
      }

    if (x < grid_size[0] - 1)
      if (vox(x + 1, y, z) == INSIDE) {
        queue.push({ x + 1, y, z });
      }

    if (y > 0)
      if (vox(x, y - 1, z) == INSIDE) {
        queue.push({ x, y - 1, z });
      }

    if (y < grid_size[1] - 1)
      if (vox(x, y + 1, z) == INSIDE) {
        queue.push({ x, y + 1, z });
      }

    if (z > 0)
      if (vox(x, y, z - 1) == INSIDE) {
        queue.push({ x, y, z - 1 });
      }

    if (z < grid_size[2] - 1)
      if (vox(x, y, z + 1) == INSIDE) {
        queue.push({ x, y, z + 1 });
      }
  }
}

#ifdef CGAL_APPROX_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_ACCEPTS_NON_CLOSED_INPUT
template<typename FaceGraph, typename GeomTraits, typename VPM, typename Concurrency_tag>
void rayshooting_fill(std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, const Bbox_3& bb, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size, const FaceGraph& mesh, VPM vpm, Concurrency_tag) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };
  using face_descriptor = typename boost::graph_traits<FaceGraph>::face_descriptor;

  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;
  using Vector_3 = typename GeomTraits::Vector_3;
  using Ray_3 = typename GeomTraits::Ray_3;

  using Primitive = CGAL::AABB_face_graph_triangle_primitive<FaceGraph>;
  using Traits = CGAL::AABB_traits_3<GeomTraits, Primitive>;
  using Tree = CGAL::AABB_tree<Traits>;
  using Ray_intersection = std::optional<typename Tree::template Intersection_and_primitive_id<Ray_3>::Type>;

  Tree tree(faces(mesh).first, faces(mesh).second, mesh);

  std::array<Vector_3, 6> dirs = { Vector_3{1, 0, 0}, Vector_3{-1, 0, 0}, Vector_3{0, 1, 0}, Vector_3{0,-1, 0}, Vector_3{0, 0, 1}, Vector_3{0, 0,-1} };

  auto yz_run =  [&](const std::size_t x)
  {
    for (std::size_t y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (std::size_t z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++) {
        if (vox(x, y, z) == SURFACE)
          continue;

        Point_3 c(bb.xmin() + (x + 0.5) * voxel_size, bb.ymin() + (y + 0.5) * voxel_size, bb.zmin() + (z + 0.5) * voxel_size);

        unsigned int inside = 0;
        unsigned int outside = 0;

        for (std::size_t i = 0; i < 6; i++) {
          Ray_intersection intersection = tree.first_intersection(Ray_3(c, dirs[i]));
          if (intersection) {
            // A segment intersection is not helpful as it means the triangle normal is orthogonal to the ray
            if (std::get_if<Point_3>(&intersection->first)) {
              face_descriptor fd = intersection->second;
              auto h = halfedge(fd, mesh);
              if (orientation(get(vpm, source(h, mesh)),
                              get(vpm, target(h, mesh)),
                              get(vpm, target(next(h, mesh), mesh)), c) != POSITIVE)
                inside++;
              else
                outside++;
            }
          }
        }

        if (inside >= 3 && outside == 0) {
          vox(x, y, z) = INSIDE;
        }
        else
          vox(x, y, z) = OUTSIDE;
      }
  };

#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
  if constexpr (Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
    tbb::parallel_for(std::size_t(0), std::size_t(grid_size[0]), yz_run);
  else
#endif
    for (std::size_t x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
      yz_run(x);
}
#endif

template<typename GeomTraits>
struct Convex_hull_candidate {
  using FT = typename GeomTraits::FT;
  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;
  typename GeomTraits::Iso_cuboid_3 bbox;
  FT voxel_volume;
  FT volume;
  FT volume_error;
  std::vector<Point_3> points;
  std::vector<std::array<unsigned int, 3>> indices;

  Convex_hull_candidate() noexcept : voxel_volume(0), volume(0), volume_error(0) {}
  Convex_hull_candidate(Convex_hull_candidate&& o) noexcept :
    bbox(o.bbox),
    voxel_volume(o.voxel_volume),
    volume(o.volume),
    volume_error(o.volume_error),
    points(std::move(o.points)),
    indices(std::move(o.indices))
  {}

  Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& operator= (Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>&& o) noexcept {
    bbox = o.bbox;
    voxel_volume = o.voxel_volume;
    volume = o.volume;
    volume_error = o.volume_error;
    points = std::move(o.points);
    indices = std::move(o.indices);

    return *this;
  }
};

template<typename GeomTraits>
struct Candidate {
  using FT = typename GeomTraits::FT;
  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;
  std::size_t index;
  std::vector<Vec3_uint> surface;
  std::vector<Vec3_uint> new_surface;
  std::vector<Vec3_uint> inside;
  std::size_t depth;
  Bbox_uint bbox;
  Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits> ch;

  Candidate() : depth(0), bbox({ 0, 0, 0 }, { 0, 0, 0 }) {}
  Candidate(std::size_t depth, Bbox_uint &bbox) : depth(depth), bbox(bbox) {}
};

template<typename GeomTraits>
typename GeomTraits::FT volume(const std::vector<typename GeomTraits::Point_3> &pts, const std::vector<std::array<unsigned int, 3>> &indices) {
  ::CGAL::internal::Evaluate<typename GeomTraits::FT> evaluate;

  typename GeomTraits::FT vol = 0;
  typename GeomTraits::Compute_volume_3 cv3;

  typename GeomTraits::Point_3 origin(0, 0, 0);

  for (const std::array<unsigned int, 3> &i : indices) {
    vol += cv3(origin, pts[i[0]], pts[i[1]], pts[i[2]]);
    evaluate(vol);
  }

  return vol;
}

inline
void enlarge(Bbox_uint& bbox, const Vec3_uint& v) {
  bbox.lower[0] = (std::min<unsigned int>)(bbox.lower[0], v[0]);
  bbox.lower[1] = (std::min<unsigned int>)(bbox.lower[1], v[1]);
  bbox.lower[2] = (std::min<unsigned int>)(bbox.lower[2], v[2]);
  bbox.upper[0] = (std::max<unsigned int>)(bbox.upper[0], v[0]);
  bbox.upper[1] = (std::max<unsigned int>)(bbox.upper[1], v[1]);
  bbox.upper[2] = (std::max<unsigned int>)(bbox.upper[2], v[2]);
}

template <typename T, typename = std::void_t<>>
struct is_std_hashable : std::false_type {};

template <typename T>
struct is_std_hashable<T, std::void_t<decltype(std::declval<std::hash<T>>()(std::declval<T>()))>> : std::true_type {};

template<typename Point_3, typename H = typename std::conjunction<is_std_hashable<typename Kernel_traits<Point_3>::type::FT>, typename std::is_same<typename Kernel_traits<Point_3>::type::Kernel_tag, CGAL::Cartesian_tag>::type>::type>
struct Unordered_set_if_available {
};

template<typename Point_3>
struct Unordered_set_if_available<Point_3, std::true_type> {
  using type = std::unordered_set<Point_3>;
};

template<typename Point_3>
struct Unordered_set_if_available<Point_3, std::false_type> {
  using type = std::set<Point_3>;
};

template<typename GeomTraits>
void compute_candidate(Candidate<GeomTraits> &c, const Bbox_3& bb, typename GeomTraits::FT voxel_size) {
  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;
  using FT = typename GeomTraits::FT;

  c.bbox.lower = c.bbox.upper = c.surface[0];

  typename Unordered_set_if_available<Point_3>::type voxel_points;

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.surface) {
    enlarge(c.bbox, v);
    FT xmin = bb.xmin() + FT(v[0]) * voxel_size;
    FT ymin = bb.ymin() + FT(v[1]) * voxel_size;
    FT zmin = bb.zmin() + FT(v[2]) * voxel_size;
    FT xmax = bb.xmin() + FT(v[0] + 1) * voxel_size;
    FT ymax = bb.ymin() + FT(v[1] + 1) * voxel_size;
    FT zmax = bb.zmin() + FT(v[2] + 1) * voxel_size;
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmax));
  }

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.new_surface) {
    enlarge(c.bbox, v);
    FT xmin = bb.xmin() + FT(v[0]) * voxel_size;
    FT ymin = bb.ymin() + FT(v[1]) * voxel_size;
    FT zmin = bb.zmin() + FT(v[2]) * voxel_size;
    FT xmax = bb.xmin() + FT(v[0] + 1) * voxel_size;
    FT ymax = bb.ymin() + FT(v[1] + 1) * voxel_size;
    FT zmax = bb.zmin() + FT(v[2] + 1) * voxel_size;
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmin));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmax));
    voxel_points.insert(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmax));
  }

  convex_hull_3(voxel_points.begin(), voxel_points.end(), c.ch.points, c.ch.indices);

  c.ch.volume = volume<GeomTraits>(c.ch.points, c.ch.indices);

  CGAL_assertion(c.ch.volume > 0);
  c.ch.bbox = bbox_3(c.ch.points.begin(), c.ch.points.end());

  c.ch.voxel_volume = (voxel_size * voxel_size * voxel_size) * FT(double(c.inside.size() + c.surface.size() + c.new_surface.size()));
  c.ch.volume_error = CGAL::abs(c.ch.volume - c.ch.voxel_volume) / c.ch.voxel_volume;
}

template<typename FaceGraph, typename GeomTraits, typename VPM, typename Concurrency_tag>
void fill_grid(Candidate<GeomTraits> &c, std::vector<int8_t> &grid, const FaceGraph &mesh, VPM vpm, const Bbox_3& bb, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size, Concurrency_tag tag) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](unsigned int x, unsigned int y, unsigned int z) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[z + (y * grid_size[2]) + (x * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };

  for (const typename boost::graph_traits<FaceGraph>::face_descriptor fd : faces(mesh)) {
    Bbox_uint face_bb = grid_bbox_face(mesh, fd, bb, voxel_size);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.lower[0] <= face_bb.upper[0]);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.lower[1] <= face_bb.upper[1]);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.lower[2] <= face_bb.upper[2]);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.upper[0] < grid_size[0]);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.upper[1] < grid_size[1]);
    CGAL_assertion(face_bb.upper[2] < grid_size[2]);
    for (unsigned int x = face_bb.lower[0]; x <= face_bb.upper[0]; x++)
      for (unsigned int y = face_bb.lower[1]; y <= face_bb.upper[1]; y++)
        for (unsigned int z = face_bb.lower[2]; z <= face_bb.upper[2]; z++) {
          typename GeomTraits::Iso_cuboid_3 box = bbox_voxel<GeomTraits>({ x, y, z }, bb, voxel_size);
          if (do_intersect(Polygon_mesh_processing::triangle(fd, mesh), box) || box.has_on_bounded_side(point<GeomTraits>(fd, mesh)))
            vox(x, y, z) = Grid_cell::SURFACE;
        }
  }

#ifdef CGAL_APPROX_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_ACCEPTS_NON_CLOSED_INPUT
  if (CGAL::is_closed(mesh))
    naive_floodfill(grid, grid_size);
  else
    rayshooting_fill<FaceGraph, GeomTraits>(grid, grid_size, bb, voxel_size, mesh, vpm, tag);
#else
  CGAL_USE(vpm);
  CGAL_USE(tag);
  naive_floodfill(grid, grid_size);
#endif

  c.bbox.upper = {grid_size[0] - 1, grid_size[1] - 1, grid_size[2] - 1};

  for (unsigned int x = 0; x < grid_size[0]; x++)
    for (unsigned int y = 0; y < grid_size[1]; y++)
      for (unsigned int z = 0; z < grid_size[2]; z++)
        if (vox(x, y, z) == INSIDE)
          c.inside.push_back({x, y, z});
        else if (vox(x, y, z) == SURFACE)
          c.surface.push_back({x, y, z});
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename FaceGraph, typename VPM, typename Concurrency_tag>
void init(Candidate<GeomTraits> &c, const FaceGraph& mesh, VPM vpm, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Bbox_3& bb, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size, Concurrency_tag tag) {
  internal::fill_grid(c, grid, mesh, vpm, bb, grid_size, voxel_size, tag);
  compute_candidate(c, bb, voxel_size);
}

template<typename Candidate_>
void split(std::vector<Candidate_> &candidates, Candidate_& c, unsigned int axis, unsigned int location) {
  //Just split the voxel bbox along 'axis' after voxel index 'location'
  Candidate_ upper(c.depth + 1, c.bbox);
  Candidate_ lower(c.depth + 1, c.bbox);

  CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[axis] < location);
  CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.upper[axis] > location);

  upper.bbox.lower[axis] = location + 1;
  lower.bbox.upper[axis] = location;

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.surface) {
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[0] <= v[0] && v[0] <= c.bbox.upper[0]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[1] <= v[1] && v[1] <= c.bbox.upper[1]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[2] <= v[2] && v[2] <= c.bbox.upper[2]);
    if (location < v[axis])
      upper.surface.push_back(v);
    else
      lower.surface.push_back(v);
  }

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.new_surface) {
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[0] <= v[0] && v[0] <= c.bbox.upper[0]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[1] <= v[1] && v[1] <= c.bbox.upper[1]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[2] <= v[2] && v[2] <= c.bbox.upper[2]);
    if (location < v[axis])
      upper.new_surface.push_back(v);
    else
      lower.new_surface.push_back(v);
  }

  for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.inside) {
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[0] <= v[0] && v[0] <= c.bbox.upper[0]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[1] <= v[1] && v[1] <= c.bbox.upper[1]);
    CGAL_assertion(c.bbox.lower[2] <= v[2] && v[2] <= c.bbox.upper[2]);
    if (location < v[axis]) {
      if ((location + 1) == v[axis])
        upper.new_surface.push_back(v);
      else
        upper.inside.push_back(v);
    }
    else {
      if (location == v[axis])
        lower.new_surface.push_back(v);
      else
        lower.inside.push_back(v);
    }
  }

  if (!upper.surface.empty())
    candidates.emplace_back(std::move(upper));

  if (!lower.surface.empty())
    candidates.emplace_back(std::move(lower));
}

inline
std::size_t concavity(const Vec3_uint& s, const Vec3_uint& e, int axis, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size) {
  const auto vox = [&grid, &grid_size](const Vec3_uint &v) -> int8_t& {
    return grid[v[2] + (v[1] * grid_size[2]) + (v[0] * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2])];
    };
  std::size_t i;
  for (i = s[axis];i<e[axis];i++) {
    Vec3_uint v = s;
    v[axis] = i;
    if (vox(v) != OUTSIDE)
      break;
  }

  if (i == e[axis])
    return 0;

  std::size_t j;
  for (j = e[axis]; j > s[axis]; j--) {
    Vec3_uint v = s;
    v[axis] = j;
    if (vox(v) != OUTSIDE)
      break;
  }

  std::size_t res = (i - s[axis]) + (e[axis] - j);
  if(res >= grid_size[axis])
    std::cout << "violation!" << std::endl;
  return (i - s[axis]) + (e[axis] - j);
}

inline
void choose_splitting_location_by_concavity(unsigned int& axis, unsigned int& location, const Bbox_uint &bbox, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size) {
  std::size_t length = bbox.upper[axis] - bbox.lower[axis] + 1;

  CGAL_assertion(length >= 8);
  CGAL_precondition(axis <= 2);

  std::size_t idx0 = 0, idx1 = 1, idx2 = 2;

  switch(axis) {
  case 0:
    idx0 = 1;
    idx1 = 2;
    idx2 = 0;
    break;
  case 1:
    idx0 = 0;
    idx1 = 2;
    idx2 = 1;
    break;
  case 2:
    idx0 = 0;
    idx1 = 1;
    idx2 = 2;
    break;
  }

  std::vector<int> diam(length, 0), diam2(length, 0);

  for (std::size_t i = bbox.lower[idx2]; i <= bbox.upper[idx2]; i++) {
    for (std::size_t j = bbox.lower[idx0]; j <= bbox.upper[idx0]; j++) {
      Vec3_uint s, e;
      s[idx2] = i;
      s[idx1] = bbox.lower[idx1];
      s[idx0] = j;
      e[idx2] = i;
      e[idx1] = bbox.upper[idx1];
      e[idx0] = j;
      diam[i - bbox.lower[idx2]] += concavity(s, e, idx1, grid, grid_size);
    }
  }

  for (std::size_t i = bbox.lower[idx2]; i <= bbox.upper[idx2]; i++) {
    for (std::size_t j = bbox.lower[idx1]; j <= bbox.upper[idx1]; j++) {
      Vec3_uint s, e;
      s[idx0] = bbox.lower[idx0];
      s[idx2] = i;
      s[idx1] = j;
      e[idx0] = bbox.upper[idx0];
      e[idx2] = i;
      e[idx1] = j;
      diam2[i - bbox.lower[idx2]] += concavity(s, e, idx0, grid, grid_size);
    }
  }

  // Skip initial border
  std::size_t border = (length / 10) + 0.5;
  std::size_t pos1, end1 = length;
  int grad = diam[0] - diam[1];
  for (pos1 = 2; pos1 < border; pos1++) {
    int grad1 = diam[pos1 - 1] - diam[pos1];
    // Stop if the gradient flips or flattens significantly
    if (!(grad * grad1 > 0 && grad1 > (grad>>1)))
      break;
    if (grad < grad1)
      grad = grad1;
  }

  grad = diam[length - 1] - diam[length - 2];
  for (end1 = length - 3; end1 > (length - border - 1); end1--) {
    int grad1 = diam[end1 + 1] - diam[end1];
    // Stop if the gradient flips or flattens significantly
    if (!(grad * grad1 > 0 && grad1 > (grad >> 1)))
      break;
    if (grad < grad1)
      grad = grad1;
  }

  std::size_t pos2, end2 = length;
  grad = diam2[0] - diam2[1];
  for (pos2 = 2; pos2 < border; pos2++) {
    int grad2 = diam[pos2 - 1] - diam[pos2];
    // Stop if the gradient flips or flattens significantly
    if (!(grad * grad2 > 0 && grad2 > (grad >> 1)))
      break;
    if (grad < grad2)
      grad = grad2;
  }

  grad = diam2[length - 1] - diam2[length - 2];
  for (end2 = length - 3; end2 > (length - border - 1); end2--) {
    int grad2 = diam[end2 + 1] - diam[end2];
    // Stop if the gradient flips or flattens significantly
    if (!(grad * grad2 > 0 && grad2 > (grad >> 1)))
      break;
    if (grad < grad2)
      grad = grad2;
  }

  std::size_t conc1 = abs(diam[pos1 + 1] - diam[pos1]);
  std::size_t conc2 = abs(diam2[pos2 + 1] - diam2[pos2]);

  for (std::size_t i = pos1;i<end1;i++)
      if (unsigned(abs(diam[i] - diam[i - 1])) > conc1) {
        pos1 = i - 1;
        conc1 = abs(diam[i] - diam[i - 1]);
      }

  for (std::size_t i = pos2; i < end2; i++)
      if (unsigned(abs(diam2[i] - diam2[i - 1])) > conc2) {
        pos2 = i - 1;
        conc2 = abs(diam2[i] - diam2[i - 1]);
      }


  if (conc1 <= conc2) {
    if (pos1 < 2 || (length - 3) < pos1)
      location = (bbox.upper[axis] + bbox.lower[axis]) / 2;
    else
      location = pos1 + bbox.lower[axis];
  }
  else {
    if (pos2 < 2 || (length - 3) < pos2)
      location = (bbox.upper[axis] + bbox.lower[axis]) / 2;
    else
      location = pos2 + bbox.lower[axis];
  }
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename NamedParameters>
void choose_splitting_plane(Candidate<GeomTraits>& c, unsigned int &axis, unsigned int &location, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, const NamedParameters& np) {
  const bool search_concavity = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::split_at_concavity), true);
  const std::array<unsigned int, 3> span = {c.bbox.upper[0] - c.bbox.lower[0], c.bbox.upper[1] - c.bbox.lower[1], c.bbox.upper[2] - c.bbox.lower[2]};

  // Split longest axis
  axis = (span[0] >= span[1]) ? 0 : 1;
  axis = (span[axis] >= span[2]) ? axis : 2;

  if (span[axis] >= 8 && search_concavity)
    choose_splitting_location_by_concavity(axis, location, c.bbox, grid, grid_size);
  else
    location = (c.bbox.upper[axis] + c.bbox.lower[axis]) / 2;
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename NamedParameters>
bool finished(Candidate<GeomTraits> &c, const NamedParameters& np) {
  const typename GeomTraits::FT max_error = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::volume_error), 0.01);

  if (c.ch.volume_error <= max_error)
    return true;

  std::size_t max_span = 0;
  for (std::size_t i = 0;i<3;i++) {
    const std::size_t span = c.bbox.upper[i] - c.bbox.lower[i];
    max_span = (std::max<std::size_t>)(max_span, span);
  }

  if (max_span <= 1)
    return true;

  return false;
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename FaceGraph, typename Concurrency_tag>
void shrink_candidates(const FaceGraph& tmesh, std::vector<Candidate<GeomTraits>>& candidates, const Bbox_3& bbox, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size, Concurrency_tag) {
  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;
  using Segment_3 = typename GeomTraits::Segment_3;
  using Triangle_3 = typename GeomTraits::Triangle_3;
  using FT = typename GeomTraits::FT;

  using Primitive = CGAL::AABB_face_graph_triangle_primitive<FaceGraph>;
  using Traits = CGAL::AABB_traits_3<GeomTraits, Primitive>;
  using Tree = CGAL::AABB_tree<Traits>;

  Tree tree(faces(tmesh).first, faces(tmesh).second, tmesh);

  const auto shrink = [&tree, voxel_size, &bbox, &tmesh](Candidate<GeomTraits>& c) {
    std::vector<Point_3> pts;
    pts.reserve(c.new_surface.size() * 8);
    using Box = typename GeomTraits::Iso_cuboid_3;
    using IP_id = typename Tree::template Intersection_and_primitive_id<Box>::Type;
    std::vector<IP_id> intersections;
    tree.all_intersections(c.ch.bbox, std::back_inserter(intersections));

    std::vector<Point_3> corners(8);
    std::vector<bool> taken(8, false);

    corners[0] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmin(), c.ch.bbox.ymin(), c.ch.bbox.zmin());
    corners[1] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmin(), c.ch.bbox.ymax(), c.ch.bbox.zmin());
    corners[2] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmin(), c.ch.bbox.ymin(), c.ch.bbox.zmax());
    corners[3] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmin(), c.ch.bbox.ymax(), c.ch.bbox.zmax());
    corners[4] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmax(), c.ch.bbox.ymin(), c.ch.bbox.zmin());
    corners[5] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmax(), c.ch.bbox.ymax(), c.ch.bbox.zmin());
    corners[6] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmax(), c.ch.bbox.ymin(), c.ch.bbox.zmax());
    corners[7] = Point_3(c.ch.bbox.xmax(), c.ch.bbox.ymax(), c.ch.bbox.zmax());

    for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.new_surface) {
      std::size_t idx = 0;
      if (v[0] == c.bbox.lower[0])
        idx = 0;
      else if (v[0] == c.bbox.upper[0])
        idx = 4;
      else continue;
      if (v[1] == c.bbox.lower[1])
        idx += 0;
      else if (v[1] == c.bbox.upper[1])
        idx += 1;
      else continue;
      if (v[2] == c.bbox.lower[2])
        idx += 0;
      else if (v[2] == c.bbox.upper[2])
        idx += 2;
      else continue;

      if (taken[idx])
        continue;

      typename Tree::Point_and_primitive_id res = tree.closest_point_and_primitive(corners[idx]);
      const Triangle_3& t = CGAL::Polygon_mesh_processing::triangle(res.second, tmesh);
      auto pl = t.supporting_plane();
      if (pl.oriented_side(corners[idx]) != CGAL::ON_POSITIVE_SIDE)
        taken[idx] = true;
    }

    for (auto& i : intersections) {
      const Point_3* p = std::get_if<Point_3>(&i.first);
      const Segment_3* s = std::get_if<Segment_3>(&i.first);
      const Triangle_3* t = std::get_if<Triangle_3>(&i.first);
      const std::vector<Point_3>* v = std::get_if<std::vector<Point_3>>(&i.first);
      if (p != nullptr) {
        pts.push_back(*p);
      }
      else if (s != nullptr) {
        pts.push_back(s->source());
        pts.push_back(s->target());
      }
      else if (t != nullptr) {
        pts.push_back((*t)[0]);
        pts.push_back((*t)[1]);
        pts.push_back((*t)[2]);
      }
      else if (v != nullptr) {
        std::copy(v->begin(), v->end(), std::back_inserter(pts));
      }
    }

    for (std::size_t c = 0; c < 8; c++)
      if (taken[c])
        pts.push_back(corners[c]);

    pts.reserve(pts.size() + c.new_surface.size() * 8);

    for (const Vec3_uint& v : c.new_surface) {
      FT xmin = bbox.xmin() + FT(v[0]) * voxel_size;
      FT ymin = bbox.ymin() + FT(v[1]) * voxel_size;
      FT zmin = bbox.zmin() + FT(v[2]) * voxel_size;
      FT xmax = bbox.xmin() + FT(v[0] + 1) * voxel_size;
      FT ymax = bbox.ymin() + FT(v[1] + 1) * voxel_size;
      FT zmax = bbox.zmin() + FT(v[2] + 1) * voxel_size;
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmin));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmin));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmin, ymin, zmax));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmin, ymax, zmax));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmin));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmin));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmax, ymin, zmax));
      pts.push_back(Point_3(xmax, ymax, zmax));
    }

    convex_hull_3(pts.begin(), pts.end(), c.ch.points, c.ch.indices);
    c.ch.bbox = bbox_3(c.ch.points.begin(), c.ch.points.end());

    if (c.ch.indices.size() <= 3 || (c.ch.volume = volume<GeomTraits>(c.ch.points, c.ch.indices)) == 0)
      c.ch.volume_error = -1;
    else
      c.ch.volume_error = CGAL::abs(c.ch.volume - c.ch.voxel_volume) / c.ch.voxel_volume;

    if (c.ch.volume < 0) {
      for (auto &a : c.ch.indices)
        std::swap(a[1], a[2]);
      c.ch.volume = -c.ch.volume;
    }
  };
#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
  if constexpr (Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
    tbb::parallel_for_each(candidates, shrink);
  else
#endif
    for (Candidate<GeomTraits>& c : candidates)
      shrink(c);
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename NamedParameters, typename Concurrency_tag>
void recurse(std::vector<Candidate<GeomTraits>>& candidates, std::vector<int8_t>& grid, const Vec3_uint& grid_size, const Bbox_3& bbox, const typename GeomTraits::FT& voxel_size, const NamedParameters& np, Concurrency_tag) {
  const std::size_t max_depth = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::maximum_depth), 10);

  std::vector<internal::Candidate<GeomTraits>> final_candidates;

  std::size_t depth = 0;

  while (!candidates.empty() && depth < max_depth) {
    depth++;
    std::vector<Candidate<GeomTraits>> former_candidates = std::move(candidates);
    for (Candidate<GeomTraits>& c : former_candidates) {

      if (finished(c, np)) {
        CGAL::Bbox_3 bbox = CGAL::bbox_3(c.ch.points.begin(), c.ch.points.end());
        bbox.scale(1.1);
        c.ch.bbox = bbox;
        final_candidates.push_back(std::move(c));
        continue;
      }
      unsigned int axis = 0, location = 0;
      choose_splitting_plane(c, axis, location, grid, grid_size, np);
      split(candidates, c, axis, location);
    }
#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
    if constexpr(Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
      tbb::parallel_for_each(candidates, [&](Candidate<GeomTraits>& c) {compute_candidate(c, bbox, voxel_size);});
    else
#endif
    for (Candidate<GeomTraits>& c : candidates)
      compute_candidate(c, bbox, voxel_size);
  }

  if (candidates.empty())
    std::swap(candidates, final_candidates);
  else
    std::move(final_candidates.begin(), final_candidates.end(), std::back_inserter(candidates));
}

template<typename GeomTraits, typename Concurrency_tag>
void merge(std::vector<Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>>& candidates, const typename GeomTraits::FT& hull_volume, const unsigned int max_convex_hulls, Concurrency_tag) {
  if (candidates.size() <= max_convex_hulls)
    return;

  using FT = typename GeomTraits::FT;
  using Point_3 = typename GeomTraits::Point_3;

  struct Merged_candidate {
    std::size_t ch_a, ch_b;
    int ch;
    FT volume_error;

    bool operator < (const Merged_candidate& other) const {
      if (volume_error == other.volume_error)
        return other.ch > ch;
      else
      return (volume_error > other.volume_error);
    }

    Merged_candidate() : ch_a(-1), ch_b(-1), ch(-1) {}
    Merged_candidate(std::size_t ch_a, std::size_t ch_b) : ch_a(ch_a), ch_b(ch_b), ch(-1) {}
  };

#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
  std::conditional_t<Concurrency_tag::is_parallel,
                     tbb::concurrent_unordered_map<std::size_t, Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>>,
                     std::unordered_map<std::size_t, Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>>> hulls;
  std::conditional_t<Concurrency_tag::is_parallel,
                     std::atomic<std::size_t>,
                     std::size_t> num_hulls = candidates.size();
#else
  std::unordered_map<std::size_t, Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>> hulls;
  std::size_t num_hulls = candidates.size();
#endif

  std::unordered_set<std::size_t> keep;

  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < candidates.size(); i++) {
    hulls.emplace(i, std::move(candidates[i]));
    keep.insert(i);
  }

  candidates.clear();
  candidates.reserve(max_convex_hulls);

  std::vector<Merged_candidate> todo;
  std::priority_queue<Merged_candidate> queue;

  const auto do_merge = [hull_volume, &hulls](Merged_candidate& m) {
    const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& ci = hulls[m.ch_a];
    const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& cj = hulls[m.ch_b];

    Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& ch = hulls[m.ch];

    ch.bbox = box_union(ci.bbox, cj.bbox);
    std::vector<Point_3> pts(ci.points.begin(), ci.points.end());
    pts.reserve(pts.size() + cj.points.size());
    std::copy(cj.points.begin(), cj.points.end(), std::back_inserter(pts));
    convex_hull_3(pts.begin(), pts.end(), ch.points, ch.indices);

    if (ch.indices.size() <= 3) {
      m.volume_error = ch.volume_error = -1;
      return;
    }

    ch.volume = volume<GeomTraits>(ch.points, ch.indices);

    if (ci.volume_error == -1 || cj.volume_error == -1) {
      m.volume_error = -1;
      ch.volume_error = 0;
    }
    else
      ch.volume_error = m.volume_error = CGAL::abs(ci.volume + cj.volume - ch.volume) / hull_volume;
  };

  for (std::size_t i : keep) {
    const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& ci = hulls[i];
    for (std::size_t j : keep) {
      if (j <= i)
        continue;
      const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& cj = hulls[j];
      if (CGAL::do_intersect(ci.bbox, cj.bbox)) {
        todo.emplace_back(Merged_candidate(i, j));
        todo.back().ch = num_hulls++;
      }
      else {
        Merged_candidate m(i, j);
        Bbox_3 bbox = box_union(ci.bbox, cj.bbox).bbox();

        if (ci.volume_error == -1 || cj.volume_error == -1)
          m.volume_error = -1;
        else
          m.volume_error = CGAL::abs(ci.volume + cj.volume - bbox.x_span() * bbox.y_span() * bbox.z_span()) / hull_volume;
        queue.push(std::move(m));
      }
    }
  }

  // parallel for if available
#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
  if constexpr (Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
    tbb::parallel_for_each(todo, do_merge);
  else
#endif
    for (Merged_candidate& mc : todo)
      do_merge(mc);

  for (Merged_candidate& m : todo)
    queue.push(std::move(m));
  todo.clear();

  while (!queue.empty() && keep.size() > max_convex_hulls) {
    Merged_candidate m = queue.top();
    queue.pop();

    auto ch_a = hulls.find(m.ch_a);
    if (ch_a == hulls.end())
      continue;

    auto ch_b = hulls.find(m.ch_b);
    if (ch_b == hulls.end())
      continue;

    if (m.ch == -1) {
      m.ch = num_hulls++;
      do_merge(m);
    }

    keep.erase(m.ch_a);
    keep.erase(m.ch_b);
#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
    if constexpr (Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
    {
      hulls.unsafe_erase(ch_a);
      hulls.unsafe_erase(ch_b);
    }
    else
#endif
    {
      hulls.erase(ch_a);
      hulls.erase(ch_b);
    }

    const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& cj = hulls[m.ch];

    for (std::size_t id : keep) {
      const Convex_hull_candidate<GeomTraits>& ci = hulls[id];
      if (CGAL::do_intersect(ci.bbox, cj.bbox)) {
        todo.emplace_back(Merged_candidate(id, m.ch));
        todo.back().ch = num_hulls++;
      }
      else {
        Merged_candidate merged(id, m.ch);
        Bbox_3 bbox = box_union(ci.bbox, cj.bbox).bbox();
        if (ci.volume_error == -1 || cj.volume_error == -1)
          merged.volume_error = -1;
        else
          merged.volume_error = CGAL::abs(ci.volume + cj.volume - bbox.x_span() * bbox.y_span() * bbox.z_span()) / hull_volume;
        queue.push(std::move(merged));
      }
    }

    keep.insert(m.ch);

  // parallel for if available
#ifdef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
    if constexpr (Concurrency_tag::is_parallel)
      tbb::parallel_for_each(todo, do_merge);
    else
#endif
      for (Merged_candidate& mc : todo)
        do_merge(mc);
    for (Merged_candidate& m : todo)
      queue.push(std::move(m));
    todo.clear();
  }

  candidates.reserve(max_convex_hulls);

  for (std::size_t i : keep)
    candidates.push_back(std::move(hulls[i]));
}

} // namespace internal

/**
 * \ingroup PkgConvexDecomposition3Ref
 *
 * \brief approximates a closed input mesh by a set of convex volumes, whose union encloses the input mesh.
 *
 * The bounding box of the input mesh is decomposed into regular voxels.
 * Voxels intersecting the input mesh are then labeled as surface, while the remaining ones are labeled outside or inside
 * according to their position with reference to the domain bounded by the closed input mesh.
 * Next, the convex hull of the mesh is hierarchically split until the `volume_error` threshold is satisfied or the `maximum_depth` is reached.
 * Finally, a greedy pairwise merging algorithm combines smaller convex volumes until `maximum_number_of_convex_volumes` is met.
 *
 * \tparam FaceGraph a model of `HalfedgeListGraph`, and `FaceListGraph`
 *
 * \tparam OutputIterator must be an output iterator accepting variables of type `std::pair<std::vector<geom_traits::Point_3>, std::vector<std::array<unsigned int, 3> > >`.
 *
 * \tparam NamedParameters a sequence of \ref bgl_namedparameters "Named Parameters"
 *
 * \param tmesh the input triangle mesh to approximate by convex volumes
 * \param out_volumes output iterator into which convex volumes are recorded
 * \param np an optional sequence of \ref bgl_namedparameters "Named Parameters" among the ones listed below
 *
 * \cgalNamedParamsBegin
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{maximum_number_of_voxels}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{gives an upper bound of the number of voxels. The longest bounding box side will have a length of the cubic root of `maximum_number_of_voxels` rounded down. Cannot be smaller than 512.}
 *     \cgalParamType{unsigned int}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{1,000,000}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{maximum_depth}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{maximum depth of hierarchical splits}
 *     \cgalParamType{unsigned int}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{10}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{refitting}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{refitting of convex volumes after split phase}
 *     \cgalParamType{Boolean}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{true}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{maximum_number_of_convex_volumes}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{maximum number of convex volumes produced by the method}
 *     \cgalParamType{unsigned int}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{16}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{volume_error}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{maximum difference in fraction of volumes of the local convex hull with the sum of voxel volumes. If surpassed, the convex hull will be split if the `maximum_depth` has not been reached yet.}
 *     \cgalParamType{double}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{0.01}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{split_at_concavity}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{If `true`, the local box of a convex hull is split at the concavity along the longest axis of the bounding box. Otherwise, it is split in the middle of the longest axis, which is faster, but less precise.}
 *     \cgalParamType{Boolean}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{true}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{vertex_point_map}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{a property map associating points to the vertices of `tmesh`}
 *     \cgalParamType{a class model of `ReadablePropertyMap` with `boost::graph_traits<FaceGraph>::%vertex_descriptor`
 *                    as key type and `%Point_3` as value type}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{`boost::get(CGAL::vertex_point, tmesh)`}
 *     \cgalParamExtra{If this parameter is omitted, an internal property map for `CGAL::vertex_point_t`
 *                     must be available in `FaceGraph`.}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{concurrency_tag}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{a tag indicating if the task should be done using one or several threads.}
 *     \cgalParamType{Either `CGAL::Sequential_tag`, or `CGAL::Parallel_tag`, or `CGAL::Parallel_if_available_tag`}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{`CGAL::Sequential_tag`}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 *   \cgalParamNBegin{geom_traits}
 *     \cgalParamDescription{an instance of a geometric traits class}
 *     \cgalParamType{a class model of `Kernel`}
 *     \cgalParamDefault{a \cgal Kernel deduced from the value type of the vertex-point map, using `CGAL::Kernel_traits`}
 *     \cgalParamExtra{The geometric traits class must be compatible with the vertex point type.}
 *   \cgalParamNEnd
 *
 * \cgalNamedParamsEnd
 *
 * \return the number of convex hulls. Note that this value may be lower than the `maximum_number_of_convex_volumes`, for example if the specified `volume_error` is quickly met.
 *         Note that the output volumes can be degenerated, especially, when a large `maximum_number_of_convex_volumes` is chosen with a limited `maximum_depth`.
 *
 * \pre `tmesh` is a triangle mesh.
 * \pre `tmesh` is not self-intersecting.
 * \pre CGAL::is_closed(`tmesh`).
 *
 * \note If the input mesh is not closed, we recommend to first use the function `CGAL::alpha_wrap_3()` to generate an enclosing of the input mesh to apply this function onto.
 *
 * \sa `CGAL::Polygon_mesh_processing::polygon_soup_to_polygon_mesh()`
 */
template<typename FaceGraph, typename OutputIterator, typename NamedParameters = parameters::Default_named_parameters>
std::size_t approximate_convex_decomposition(const FaceGraph& tmesh, OutputIterator out_volumes, const NamedParameters& np = parameters::default_values()) {
  using Geom_traits = typename GetGeomTraits<FaceGraph, NamedParameters>::type;

  using FT = typename Geom_traits::FT;
  using Point_3 = typename Geom_traits::Point_3;
  const unsigned int num_voxels = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::maximum_number_of_voxels), 1000000);
  const bool refitting = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::refitting), true);
  using Concurrency_tag = typename internal_np::Lookup_named_param_def<internal_np::concurrency_tag_t, NamedParameters, Sequential_tag>::type;

#ifndef CGAL_APPROX_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_ACCEPTS_NON_CLOSED_INPUT
  CGAL_precondition(CGAL::is_closed(tmesh));
#endif

  if (faces(tmesh).size() == 0)
    return 0;

#ifndef CGAL_LINKED_WITH_TBB
  if constexpr (std::is_same_v<Concurrency_tag, Parallel_tag>) {
    CGAL_error_msg("CGAL was not compiled with TBB support. Use Sequential_tag instead.");
    return 0;
  }
#endif

  const unsigned int max_convex_volumes = parameters::choose_parameter(parameters::get_parameter(np, internal_np::maximum_number_of_convex_volumes), 16);
  assert(max_convex_volumes > 0);

  std::vector<Point_3> points;
  std::vector<std::array<unsigned int, 3> > indices;

  using parameters::choose_parameter;
  using parameters::get_parameter;
  using VPM = typename GetVertexPointMap<FaceGraph, NamedParameters>::const_type;
  typedef CGAL::Property_map_to_unary_function<VPM> Vpmap_fct;

  VPM vpm = choose_parameter(get_parameter(np, internal_np::vertex_point), get_const_property_map(CGAL::vertex_point, tmesh));
  Vpmap_fct v2p(vpm);

  convex_hull_3(boost::make_transform_iterator(vertices(tmesh).begin(), v2p), boost::make_transform_iterator(vertices(tmesh).end(), v2p), points, indices);

  if (indices.size() < 4) {
    *out_volumes++ = std::make_pair(std::move(points), std::move(indices));
    return 1;
  }

  const FT hull_volume = internal::volume<Geom_traits>(points, indices);

  if (hull_volume == 0 || max_convex_volumes == 1) {
    *out_volumes = std::make_pair(std::move(points), std::move(indices));
    return 1;
  }

  Bbox_3 bb = Polygon_mesh_processing::bbox(tmesh);
  const auto [grid_size, voxel_size] = internal::calculate_grid_size<FT>(bb, num_voxels);

  std::vector<int8_t> grid(grid_size[0] * grid_size[1] * grid_size[2], internal::Grid_cell::INSIDE);

  std::vector<internal::Candidate<Geom_traits>> candidates(1);
  internal::init(candidates[0], tmesh, vpm, grid, bb, grid_size, voxel_size, Concurrency_tag());

  if (hull_volume == 0) {
    *out_volumes = std::make_pair(std::move(candidates[0].ch.points), std::move(candidates[0].ch.indices));
    return 1;
  }

  internal::recurse(candidates, grid, grid_size, bb, voxel_size, np, Concurrency_tag());

  if (refitting)
    internal::shrink_candidates<Geom_traits, FaceGraph>(tmesh, candidates, bb, voxel_size, Concurrency_tag());

  std::vector<internal::Convex_hull_candidate<Geom_traits>> volumes;
  for (internal::Candidate<Geom_traits> &c : candidates)
    volumes.emplace_back(std::move(c.ch));

  candidates.clear();

  // merge until target number is reached
  internal::merge(volumes, hull_volume, max_convex_volumes, Concurrency_tag());

  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < volumes.size(); i++)
    *out_volumes++ = std::make_pair(std::move(volumes[i].points), std::move(volumes[i].indices));

  return volumes.size();
}

} // namespace CGAL

#endif // CGAL_SURFACE_MESH_DECOMPOSITION_APPROXIMATE_CONVEX_DECOMPOSITION_H
